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Taoist Meditation: The Mao Shan Tradition of Great Purity by Isabelle Robinet.
Mao Shan Taoism, also know as Shang Qing Taoism was a tradition of Taoism that became popular among the southern aristocracy after the fall of the Han dynasty during the 3rd and 4th centuries. Rather than the vast public rituals of the Celestial Master church Shang Qing Taoism focused on individual salvation through meditation and ritual practice. It’s rather rare among religious traditions in that it’s founder, and first patriarch was the woman Wei Huacun. Wei was actually ordained as a Taoist Priestesses of the celestial master tradition, but was credited with the receiving the first scriptural revelation. Robinet is very much a religious scholar rather than a historian. So I am a little unclear as to whether Wei actually wrote down the scriptures, or she revealed them to her disciples posthumously. (A detail I need to check.) Either way Wei was seen as the founder of the tradition and worshipped afterwards as a goddess/transcendent for centuries. Wei is also important as Du Guangting when trying to establish a history for the women in his biographies tries to reconstruct a line of female revelations that stem from Wei Huacun. Du Guangting goes a step further and looks at the tradition as originally held by the Queen Mother of the West that was passed to Wei Huacun. In the Shang Qing school “the Ta-Tung Ching was transmitted by the Celestial King of the original beginning to the Queen mother of the West before the formation of the world. The Queen mother formed a book out of the condensed and coagulated breath of the Correct One and the Nine Mysteries, which then remained hidden in the heavens for a long time (like most Mao-shan texts). This book was eventually revealed to Lady Wei, who transmitted it to her disciple, Yang Xi. It constitutes the core of the Great Purity tradition. (97-98). It is interesting to see that even though the earlier transmission was by a goddess to a woman it was a tradition that was intended to be used (predominantly) by males. This is quite a different image to the female tradition that is passed down with a womanly focus in the writing of Du Guangting. It would seem that earlier there was less emphasis on keeping the genders separate. Two of the women mentioned in his biographies are praised for restoring shrines to Wei that had previously been abandoned.
Taoist Meditation is a detailed description of the teachings and practices of the Mao Shan tradition. I am hesitant to use the word “beliefs” as I believe to define a religion by a series of “beliefs” is a bias of Christianity and not necessarily reflective of other religions. Particularly in a society where there is considered to be no differentiation between the physical and the spiritual. Mao Shan Taoism states that all scriptures are already existent in the higher heavens and will be revealed on earth over time. These revelations are reflections of the actual books in heaven. In her book Robinet examines the main scriptures of the tradition and their teachings and practices. A lot of attention is paid to how the scriptures where used, and what rituals accompanied them. Robinet however goes into little detail about how, outside the textual tradition, such information is known. She also mentions little about the history of the texts that she is studying, how they have come to be in their present form, how these texts have been received and how they might have changed over time. The book was originally written in French and translated to English. There were repeated references throughout the book to the adept as a male, and no reference to the adepts as women. This has been out of keeping with other Taoists book written at the time or later in which case the works are addressed to “all Taoists, whether male or female”. I do not know however if this is a particular gender distinction of this time, or if it is simply a choice by the translators. There is also very little reference to who was actually using these texts, who the practioners being described, would have been, and how plentiful they were. This lack of concrete basis makes the religion seem even more esoteric and disconnected from reality.
There were however some very helpful and interesting points made by Robinet and the study was a most detailed undertaking. The description of a Mao Shan adept is similar to the saints in the Hagiographies I am studying,
Robinet also points out that in earlier texts (Zhuang ZI and Huai nan Zi there is no distinction between xian ren 仙人 and zhen ren 真人sheng ren 生人 (sages). In later periods (those discussed in the book) these become “different stages in the process of spiritual development” (45). Not only are these terms different stages but the category of Immortal, 仙人 has different stages as well.
The mixture of feminine and masculine aspects within the Taoist is something that is noted by Robinet. This goes back to Lao Zi “who called the way “to know the male and keep the feminine”” (108). The Great purity texts talk of “The mysterious mother becomes masculine and the original father unites with the feminine,” “The masculine and the feminine fuse in the jade chamber” and “The masculine and Feminine fuse and transform themselves. Which isn’t really as naughty as it sounds, as unlike the Celestial Maters the Shang Qing tradition weren’t that big on sex rites. Perhaps it is this idea of gender in balance, the keeping of both male and female, rather than the favouring of one over the other, that can help to account for Taoism’s more progressive approach to gender roles within it’s church and clergy. In the scriptures revealed to Wei Huacun, there are female deities that are within the brain, these women are mothers to a set of three sons. The Tz’u-i Ching spends an entire chapter on these female deities. It is hardly surprising given the form of transmission and the position of women within the church that in this process female deities have an important role to play.
While immorality is something that has to be achieved in Shangqing Taoism there is a certain amount of fate, or predestination, involved in who will become an immortal. “Even before his birth an adept may be promised immortality if his name is inscribed in the heavens, if he is qualified, or if he has “jade bones”, “bones of immortality” or other supernatural marks. Thus the extraordinary appearance of heroes and sage is a traditional theme in China, which was taken up by Taoism in its hagiographical descriptions of the saints. Lady Wei, for example, was said to have purple viscera and “phoenix bones”. (149). It is interesting to note that this predisposition does not come across in all the biographies of the Women Taoists written by Du Guangting. It will be interesting and important to see how much of a precedent this predisposition towards immortality is in his writing.
“The adepts inclusion on the celestial tablets is a necessary qualification for receiving sacred instruction and texts. But it does not itself suffice for such results since inscription will be wiped clean if the adept does not practice” (149). Therefore the adept’s actions are as important as their nature. It is also noteworthy that the reverse is true; an ordinary person who is fated to die can achieve immortality, even after death. The possibility of salvation after death, and the ability to posthumously become an official is seen in the hagiography of Du Guangting. Cahill suggests that this is part of the appeal of Taoism, in that it is something that can be achieved even after death offering hope to grieving relatives. Robinet also mentions how “death is not a separation” for the Taoists because the remits of the dead, acquired in life or after, are passed on to their descendents. Likewise the bad deeds of the ancestors can be held against their descendents, this concept Robinet states, surprisingly is seen in the Taiping Jing before the arrival of Buddhism. This interest in their ancestors’ salvation and their descendents can be seen as having a Confucian concern. This mixture is a balance between the selfish personal nature of Shangqing Taoism and the social context of its practitioners.
“The Taoist adept searches for longevity, for rebirth in paradises, and for his own and his ancestors salvation. But the very condition of sainthood implies the acquisition of certain virtues and the expressive mastery of certain supernatural powers. These attributes constitute part of the basic image of the saint and are constantly evoked by the formulaic vows accompanying exercises. Such aspects of the saint are also indicated by the list of favours, which texts promise to those who successfully make use of the revealed practices. The saint is able to “realise all of his desires” is clairvoyantly able to know the future and is able to “command the yang and summon the yin” His teeth grow back, his hair will turn black again and he is able to appear and disappear at will. Moreover, the saint is able to immerse himself in water without getting wet, is not burned by fire, is not attacked by wild animals, and cannot be harmed by anyone. He commands the wind and ain, travels a thousand miles in an instant, and –most surely- is able to fly” 161
It is interesting to note that most of the women written about by Du Guangting do not possess most of these supernatural powers. For someone who is legendary for his supernatural exaggeration, Du’s biographies of women saints are not always that extraordinary. Indeed the women may only display one or two of the qualities discussed above by Robinet. The power over spirits is also an important part of the saint’s life but one that is not often portrayed in Du’s biographies on women.
The His-tz’u says “One yin, one yang that is the Tao” (194). This is true for the presentation of Yin and Yang in nature, as is the case of the sun and the moon, and the balance of male and female. Together the sun and moon symbolise the world together, it requires both parts to make the whole. While male and female Taoists are not discussed at this point it is hardly revolutionary to see that the same principle can be applied to men and women as well.
The Shangqing school was without a doubt the most influential school of Taoism during the Tang period. “The school is considered to have set forth the highest teachings within the hierarchy of Taoist schools”. (227) The texts and hagiographies of the Shangqing school are incorporated into the allusions of the Tang poets, particularly Li Po, which attests to their cultural relevance. The importance of visual meditation and personal practice are the two most important elements of this school. Robinet also defines Shangqing as being close to the sacred, “a religion of the immediate present, of presence and epiphany. It is not a religion of promise, of waiting, and of eschatology.” This sets it apart from the messianic branches of Taoism.
Robinet’s book is very detailed and descriptive look at the main aspects of this teaching. It offers religious insight into the practices and worldviews of the Shangqing Taoists and is able to explain some of the more difficult concepts in a clear manner. It does not attempt to be a historical work, yet I cannot help but feel that looking at the context of the documents, and opening up more of the current debates on the dating of works, would have added a depth to the work. It was however and excellent book which is undoubtly useful for my research.
Mao Shan Taoism, also know as Shang Qing Taoism was a tradition of Taoism that became popular among the southern aristocracy after the fall of the Han dynasty during the 3rd and 4th centuries. Rather than the vast public rituals of the Celestial Master church Shang Qing Taoism focused on individual salvation through meditation and ritual practice. It’s rather rare among religious traditions in that it’s founder, and first patriarch was the woman Wei Huacun. Wei was actually ordained as a Taoist Priestesses of the celestial master tradition, but was credited with the receiving the first scriptural revelation. Robinet is very much a religious scholar rather than a historian. So I am a little unclear as to whether Wei actually wrote down the scriptures, or she revealed them to her disciples posthumously. (A detail I need to check.) Either way Wei was seen as the founder of the tradition and worshipped afterwards as a goddess/transcendent for centuries. Wei is also important as Du Guangting when trying to establish a history for the women in his biographies tries to reconstruct a line of female revelations that stem from Wei Huacun. Du Guangting goes a step further and looks at the tradition as originally held by the Queen Mother of the West that was passed to Wei Huacun. In the Shang Qing school “the Ta-Tung Ching was transmitted by the Celestial King of the original beginning to the Queen mother of the West before the formation of the world. The Queen mother formed a book out of the condensed and coagulated breath of the Correct One and the Nine Mysteries, which then remained hidden in the heavens for a long time (like most Mao-shan texts). This book was eventually revealed to Lady Wei, who transmitted it to her disciple, Yang Xi. It constitutes the core of the Great Purity tradition. (97-98). It is interesting to see that even though the earlier transmission was by a goddess to a woman it was a tradition that was intended to be used (predominantly) by males. This is quite a different image to the female tradition that is passed down with a womanly focus in the writing of Du Guangting. It would seem that earlier there was less emphasis on keeping the genders separate. Two of the women mentioned in his biographies are praised for restoring shrines to Wei that had previously been abandoned.
Taoist Meditation is a detailed description of the teachings and practices of the Mao Shan tradition. I am hesitant to use the word “beliefs” as I believe to define a religion by a series of “beliefs” is a bias of Christianity and not necessarily reflective of other religions. Particularly in a society where there is considered to be no differentiation between the physical and the spiritual. Mao Shan Taoism states that all scriptures are already existent in the higher heavens and will be revealed on earth over time. These revelations are reflections of the actual books in heaven. In her book Robinet examines the main scriptures of the tradition and their teachings and practices. A lot of attention is paid to how the scriptures where used, and what rituals accompanied them. Robinet however goes into little detail about how, outside the textual tradition, such information is known. She also mentions little about the history of the texts that she is studying, how they have come to be in their present form, how these texts have been received and how they might have changed over time. The book was originally written in French and translated to English. There were repeated references throughout the book to the adept as a male, and no reference to the adepts as women. This has been out of keeping with other Taoists book written at the time or later in which case the works are addressed to “all Taoists, whether male or female”. I do not know however if this is a particular gender distinction of this time, or if it is simply a choice by the translators. There is also very little reference to who was actually using these texts, who the practioners being described, would have been, and how plentiful they were. This lack of concrete basis makes the religion seem even more esoteric and disconnected from reality.
There were however some very helpful and interesting points made by Robinet and the study was a most detailed undertaking. The description of a Mao Shan adept is similar to the saints in the Hagiographies I am studying,
When he achieves, salvation, the adept will wear a feathered garment, will ride on light and straddle the stars, or will float in empty space. He will have wind and light as a chariot and dragons as steeds. His bones will shine like jade, his face will be resplendent, his head will be circled with a halo, and his whole body will radiate a supernatural light as incandescent as the sun and moon. He will be able to realise all his desires and will enjoy an endless youth and a longevity equal to that of heaven and earth. Moreover, he will know the future, will be able to travel a thousand li in a single day, and will be able to immerse himself in water without getting wet or walk through fire without getting burned. Neither beasts nor weapons will have any power over him. He will command the forces of nature and the spirits. (44-45)
Robinet also points out that in earlier texts (Zhuang ZI and Huai nan Zi there is no distinction between xian ren 仙人 and zhen ren 真人sheng ren 生人 (sages). In later periods (those discussed in the book) these become “different stages in the process of spiritual development” (45). Not only are these terms different stages but the category of Immortal, 仙人 has different stages as well.
The mixture of feminine and masculine aspects within the Taoist is something that is noted by Robinet. This goes back to Lao Zi “who called the way “to know the male and keep the feminine”” (108). The Great purity texts talk of “The mysterious mother becomes masculine and the original father unites with the feminine,” “The masculine and the feminine fuse in the jade chamber” and “The masculine and Feminine fuse and transform themselves. Which isn’t really as naughty as it sounds, as unlike the Celestial Maters the Shang Qing tradition weren’t that big on sex rites. Perhaps it is this idea of gender in balance, the keeping of both male and female, rather than the favouring of one over the other, that can help to account for Taoism’s more progressive approach to gender roles within it’s church and clergy. In the scriptures revealed to Wei Huacun, there are female deities that are within the brain, these women are mothers to a set of three sons. The Tz’u-i Ching spends an entire chapter on these female deities. It is hardly surprising given the form of transmission and the position of women within the church that in this process female deities have an important role to play.
While immorality is something that has to be achieved in Shangqing Taoism there is a certain amount of fate, or predestination, involved in who will become an immortal. “Even before his birth an adept may be promised immortality if his name is inscribed in the heavens, if he is qualified, or if he has “jade bones”, “bones of immortality” or other supernatural marks. Thus the extraordinary appearance of heroes and sage is a traditional theme in China, which was taken up by Taoism in its hagiographical descriptions of the saints. Lady Wei, for example, was said to have purple viscera and “phoenix bones”. (149). It is interesting to note that this predisposition does not come across in all the biographies of the Women Taoists written by Du Guangting. It will be interesting and important to see how much of a precedent this predisposition towards immortality is in his writing.
“The adepts inclusion on the celestial tablets is a necessary qualification for receiving sacred instruction and texts. But it does not itself suffice for such results since inscription will be wiped clean if the adept does not practice” (149). Therefore the adept’s actions are as important as their nature. It is also noteworthy that the reverse is true; an ordinary person who is fated to die can achieve immortality, even after death. The possibility of salvation after death, and the ability to posthumously become an official is seen in the hagiography of Du Guangting. Cahill suggests that this is part of the appeal of Taoism, in that it is something that can be achieved even after death offering hope to grieving relatives. Robinet also mentions how “death is not a separation” for the Taoists because the remits of the dead, acquired in life or after, are passed on to their descendents. Likewise the bad deeds of the ancestors can be held against their descendents, this concept Robinet states, surprisingly is seen in the Taiping Jing before the arrival of Buddhism. This interest in their ancestors’ salvation and their descendents can be seen as having a Confucian concern. This mixture is a balance between the selfish personal nature of Shangqing Taoism and the social context of its practitioners.
“The Taoist adept searches for longevity, for rebirth in paradises, and for his own and his ancestors salvation. But the very condition of sainthood implies the acquisition of certain virtues and the expressive mastery of certain supernatural powers. These attributes constitute part of the basic image of the saint and are constantly evoked by the formulaic vows accompanying exercises. Such aspects of the saint are also indicated by the list of favours, which texts promise to those who successfully make use of the revealed practices. The saint is able to “realise all of his desires” is clairvoyantly able to know the future and is able to “command the yang and summon the yin” His teeth grow back, his hair will turn black again and he is able to appear and disappear at will. Moreover, the saint is able to immerse himself in water without getting wet, is not burned by fire, is not attacked by wild animals, and cannot be harmed by anyone. He commands the wind and ain, travels a thousand miles in an instant, and –most surely- is able to fly” 161
It is interesting to note that most of the women written about by Du Guangting do not possess most of these supernatural powers. For someone who is legendary for his supernatural exaggeration, Du’s biographies of women saints are not always that extraordinary. Indeed the women may only display one or two of the qualities discussed above by Robinet. The power over spirits is also an important part of the saint’s life but one that is not often portrayed in Du’s biographies on women.
The His-tz’u says “One yin, one yang that is the Tao” (194). This is true for the presentation of Yin and Yang in nature, as is the case of the sun and the moon, and the balance of male and female. Together the sun and moon symbolise the world together, it requires both parts to make the whole. While male and female Taoists are not discussed at this point it is hardly revolutionary to see that the same principle can be applied to men and women as well.
The Shangqing school was without a doubt the most influential school of Taoism during the Tang period. “The school is considered to have set forth the highest teachings within the hierarchy of Taoist schools”. (227) The texts and hagiographies of the Shangqing school are incorporated into the allusions of the Tang poets, particularly Li Po, which attests to their cultural relevance. The importance of visual meditation and personal practice are the two most important elements of this school. Robinet also defines Shangqing as being close to the sacred, “a religion of the immediate present, of presence and epiphany. It is not a religion of promise, of waiting, and of eschatology.” This sets it apart from the messianic branches of Taoism.
Robinet’s book is very detailed and descriptive look at the main aspects of this teaching. It offers religious insight into the practices and worldviews of the Shangqing Taoists and is able to explain some of the more difficult concepts in a clear manner. It does not attempt to be a historical work, yet I cannot help but feel that looking at the context of the documents, and opening up more of the current debates on the dating of works, would have added a depth to the work. It was however and excellent book which is undoubtly useful for my research.